Sermon 29: 1 Samuel 8:11-22

11. And he said: This will be the manner of the king who shall reign over you: he will take your sons and appoint them for himself, for his chariots and for his horsemen, and they shall run before his chariot. 12. He will also appoint for himself commanders of thousands and commanders of fifties, and to plow his fields and to reap his harvest, and to make his weapons of war and the equipment of his chariots. 13. He will also take your daughters as perfumers, cooks, and bakers. 14. He will take your fields, your vineyards, and your best olive groves, and give them to his servants. 15. He will take a tenth of your seed and your vineyards, and give it to his officers and servants. 16. He will take your male servants and female servants, your finest young men, and your donkeys, and put them to his work. 17. He will take a tenth of your flocks, and you will be his servants. 18. And you will cry out in that day because of the king whom you have chosen for yourselves, and the Lord will not hear you in that day. 19. But the people refused to listen to the voice of Samuel; and they said: No, but a king shall be over us. 20. And we also will be like all the nations, and our king shall judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles. 21. Samuel heard all the words of the people and repeated them in the ears of the Lord. 22. And the Lord said to Samuel: Listen to their voice and appoint a king for them. So Samuel said to the men of Israel: Go, each of you to his city.

What now remains for us to explain is Samuel's speech to the Israelite people, in which he exhorts them, while liberty still permits, to turn back from their purpose and change the plan they had adopted of seeking a king. He says therefore that the king who will reign over them will take their sons, whom he will turn to his own use, and will employ many acts of plunder and robbery. Now we said in the previous sermon that by these words the Lord does not give kings the power of tyranny to exercise over their subject peoples. But since when princes seize tyrannical power, the freedom to resist seems to be taken from subjects, it may rightly be asked whether, when kings and princes bind their word to the peoples by oath that they will administer justice with the utmost equity, sincerity, and integrity, if they break their word and usurp tyranny and permit themselves everything, the peoples may not look after their own interests and apply a fitting remedy to this evil. This is certainly a difficult question, which it is neither convenient nor expedient to examine more closely at this time. For we see many today seeking an opportunity to overturn the established order, and permitting themselves too much in disturbing and changing governments and ruling powers; therefore these matters must be handled soberly. We must therefore be content with what the sacred page teaches: namely, that God punishes through princes who turn to tyranny those who do not deserve legitimate governance. I confess that force may be resisted when robbers use violence, because it is not lawful for anyone to use force against another. If someone seizes our property against our will, the hand and vengeance of God must indeed be recognized; but the case of princes and higher authorities is far different, whom God wills subjects to obey. And I confess that God has prescribed limits of power for them, within which they ought to contain themselves, so that they may devote themselves to the common benefit and govern peoples with the utmost equity and justice, and not be puffed up by their rank, but remember that they in turn are subject to God; and that although raised to the highest honors of dignity, they are nevertheless fragile and transient; and that to advance God's glory is their duty. Samuel, however, admonishes the people that the rule of kings must be borne and necks must be patiently submitted to the yoke. From all this it is clear that subjects neither can nor ought to rebel against kings and princes or cause any disturbance, even if they exercise tyranny and are burdensome to subjects with their plundering and robbery, and have no regard for either God or equity and justice. Nevertheless, I confess that certain remedies against this tyranny are permissible — for example, when other magistrates and orders have been established to whom the care of the commonwealth has been entrusted, who will be able to keep the prince in his duty, and even restrain him if he attempts anything. But when they fail to act or do not dare to oppose his tyranny, then private persons too must acknowledge that this disaster is sent upon them by God, who is punishing their sins. For just as Scripture teaches us that a well-constituted commonwealth is a singular benefit of God, so also, conversely, a disturbed state, with wicked men ruling and perverting justice, is a sign of divine wrath, humbling us; and accordingly calling us by this means to the acknowledgment of our sins, so that with all our heart we may turn to him and call upon him. In no other sense, therefore, does Samuel say here that this will be the manner of the king — that he will scrape together the wealth and possessions of his subjects. For the people who had previously been free and had desired royal rule, voluntarily subjecting themselves and betraying their liberty, deserved such a reward.

Let us now come to the specific treatment of that right which Samuel predicts kings will have over the people. He says the king will take their sons, to appoint them for himself for his chariots and for his horsemen, and they shall run before his chariot; and to appoint for himself commanders of thousands and commanders of fifties; and to plow his fields (for at that time kings were more attentive to their estates than they are today; for kings today consider it beneath their dignity to have farms and devote themselves to agriculture; but then there was greater simplicity and integrity); and to reap his harvest, and to make his weapons of war. Their daughters he will take as perfumers, cooks, and bakers, and for domestic tasks. Their servants also and maidservants and finest young men, and donkeys, which he will put to his work. Finally, he will tithe their flocks, fields, and vineyards, and give them to his chief courtiers and servants, etc. Now since in those times, which were not as corrupt as those we have fallen into, princes allowed themselves so much and did not abstain from such plundering and pillaging, let us recognize that from of old, wickedness, avarice, cruelty, fornication, and tyranny prevailed in the world. Therefore, since today the world is flooded with a deluge of impiety and iniquity, let us not be surprised if we see so much plundering and pillaging everywhere among the nations, and if kings and princes consider that everything is permitted to them, since no one opposes them. For that old proverb customary among tyrants holds: let will stand in place of reason; and accordingly they consider themselves bound by no laws. Yet those who have spoken somewhat more honorably said they lived according to the laws. And indeed that claim — to be subject to no laws — is excessively arrogant; nevertheless it was accepted in practice in the institutions of the Roman emperors. Since therefore we see that in every age those who were restrained neither by the fear of God nor by the love of justice considered everything permitted to themselves and gave free rein to evil, let us know that today a much greater occasion is given for humbling ourselves before God and submitting our necks to the yoke, and for praying to God that he may restrain the tyranny which threatens us more harshly from today's princes than it ever did in former ages, unless he himself in his mercy breaks the attempts of men. Moreover, let those who have been raised to the highest ranks of office acknowledge that they must constantly meditate on the divine word and that they need the help of the Holy Spirit, so that they may rule peoples with greater modesty, render to God his honor, obey his laws, and govern their subjects with moderation; and for accomplishing this let them seek divine help, so that under his guidance they may walk the right path and never stray from what is right, but keep themselves within their proper bounds.

There follow the words to be examined in which the king is said to be going to take both the persons and the goods and possessions of his subjects. Surely when kings do their duty, no one would deny that subjects owe them taxes and that they may rightfully use both the persons and the goods of their subjects. For Paul teaches that this is approved by God — namely, that kings exact taxes and revenues from their subjects; and when they do this for public purposes, they cannot be accused of usurped tyranny. For God has given kings this power to use both the persons and the goods of their subjects — but not rashly, nor without examination of the case, and on the condition that it be done for public purposes and the benefit of the commonwealth. When therefore we say it is the duty of subjects to be subject to kings and obey them, we understand in turn that legitimate administration is required of the kings themselves: that they undertake nothing harshly, nothing tyrannically, but according to God's command govern their subjects; that they not rashly embark on any war; that they not seek to expand their domain through their own ambition; and finally, that they not command their subjects whatever pleases them according to their own whim or desire. But when enemies attack and assault a region or city, kings may conscript soldiers, assemble an army, and lead them into battle; and thus subjects must lay down their lives for their country and king — provided, however, that kings do not rashly rush to arms or pursue a private cause, but direct their plans to the use and benefit of the commonwealth. Subjects are indeed in the power of kings; but in turn kings must devote themselves to public interests, so that they may discharge the duty prescribed for them by God, and indeed with counsel and mature deliberation. For if kings manage the commonwealth according to their own judgment and at their own pleasure and take counsel from themselves alone, it is certain that subjects will be oppressed by plundering and pillaging, without any hope of a better condition in the future, but rather with the greatest fear of oppression. Whoever therefore has attained royal power and wishes to govern his subjects and retain authority among them, let him not trust himself too much, but manage his affairs with reason and counsel; and let him take particular care that in exacting revenues or taxes, or in taking the persons and goods of subjects for his own use, he does nothing tyrannically, even though subjects must obey him. For their subjection is not such that princes may abuse them at their pleasure; rather, each person ought to enjoy and use peacefully and quietly the goods and possessions received from God, which are accordingly not placed in the power of kings without distinction and without examination of the case. For what confusion of things would be introduced into the world if the distinction of properties and goods were not maintained? Therefore the private property of individuals is not placed at the discretion and pleasure of kings; but kings may exact taxes and revenues, and when necessity presses, may consult for the commonwealth through other extraordinary subsidies from the resources of their subjects, by their own right. In short, just as peoples must be subject to kings, so in turn kings must obey and be subject to the laws, and not persuade themselves that everything is permitted to them, but know that they have been appointed as rulers of peoples so that they may depend on God's word and direct all their plans to the benefit of their subjects. But how great is the corruption, how great the decay that has long since invaded this order! For they consider that everything is permitted to them, and that they are not bound by God's law, and they think that his worship does not pertain to them. In this they are greatly deceived. Hence it happens that, having cast off the fear of God, they exercise a proud and cruel dominion over their subjects, and regard them as nothing more than beasts; while they consider themselves, on account of their rule, placed outside the order of men, so that they now demand no other than divine honors from men. And yet it is certain that all royal rule is ministerial; I say, I declare, that kings are servants and ministers of God, and accordingly they must know that they have been entrusted to peoples by God as his ambassadors, to faithfully administer his affairs and have care of the people. And so, although the power of earthly princes is great in the world, they must nevertheless acknowledge that they are ministers and servants of God and of the peoples. But how few princes seriously think about these things; how many give themselves free rein and indulge their own will and lust! David himself, so distinguished in piety and so excellent a prophet, did not nevertheless observe what was prescribed by God's law. He taught others God's law, but he himself, elated by prosperity, consigned it to oblivion. For he added many wives to one; he collected a vast quantity of gold and silver, accumulated many treasures — all of which were forbidden by the law, to which he otherwise showed by unmistakable signs that he was deeply devoted. Therefore, since we see that the power of rule is so great that it blinds even princes themselves, we must consider how great a benefit liberty is when God bestows it on anyone. And indeed the things recounted here by Samuel serve as punishment, because the people rejected the inestimable benefit of liberty received from God and sought a king in place of the governor whom God raised up, whose authority was so familiar. And so the people, not bearing such a fair and honorable condition, had also to pay the penalty for their own rashness. And for this reason Samuel here sets forth various kinds of misfortunes and plunderings to which those who desire royal rule would be subject. For the most powerful princes and monarchs generally sin in this regard; and we can truly say they are like great rivers whose floods devastate lands with their fruits far and wide, so that they are overwhelmed as if by a kind of deluge. And indeed Isaiah uses this comparison when he reproaches the Israelites for the alliance they sought with the Egyptians or with the Assyrians, who were far more powerful than they, in these words: 'Because this people has rejected the waters of Shiloah that flow gently, and rejoices in Rezin and the son of Remaliah — therefore behold, the Lord is bringing upon them the waters of the River, strong and mighty.' For there were no swift rivers at Jerusalem, such as exist in Egypt and Chaldea; and for this reason the prophet mentions the waters of Shiloah, whose contempt he reproaches the people for, and threatens that, on the contrary, the waters of those rivers, most powerful and vast, will pass through Judah, flood it and overflow, and reach up to the neck. That entire speech is metaphorical, by which he does not reproach the people for the desire — or rather the vanity — of obtaining dominion over the whole world, but for the alliance entered into with powerful kings, whom he compares to great rivers, by which they would more likely be submerged than helped. So it usually happens to most peoples, as experience itself testifies. For where princes hold a more modest domain and observe moderation in exacting taxes and revenues, their subjects abound in their own resources; but monarchs are like the swiftest rivers devastating lands far and wide, and who wish their will to stand in place of reason, and accordingly think that whatever they wish must be done, since they have long since persuaded themselves that everything is permitted to kings. Therefore they are attentive only to their own interest, and they manage the commonwealth by lust alone, not by counsel and reason; by which approach they depart from true humility and humanity, and indeed they daily devise a thousand arts of doing harm, while in the meantime no one dares to oppose them or even to open his mouth. But how few — indeed scarcely one out of many thousands — remember their humanity and humble themselves to the point of preferring the welfare and benefit of their subjects to their own with simplicity and integrity, and of fostering them in mutual peace and harmony in the fear of God! On the contrary, how eager they are not only to extend and more and more confirm their authority, but to harm and despoil their subject peoples with various robberies and plunderings! Hence it happens that they keep their eyes and ears closed to the calamities and miseries of wretched people, and they make little of their cries and groans; and they become all the more uncontrolled and fierce the greater the complaints of the wretched about their tyranny that they hear. From all this we must learn how great a gift liberty is, and how kindly God deals with those peoples to whom he grants it, where the magistrates themselves are subject to the laws and undertake nothing on their own, but manage affairs with reason and counsel, for which they will also eventually render an account. Great therefore, I say, is the benefit of liberty, proceeding from God alone, the best and greatest. Nevertheless, those who are subject to the dominion of kings and monarchs, and whom God exercises with their tyranny — if they should attempt anything against them or contemplate rebellion — seem not only to lack reason and judgment but to be out of their minds.

As for the remaining evils of tyranny that Samuel mentions here, they are also to be noted: namely, that the king will take their fields and vineyards and olive groves and give them to his servants. For from these things it appears that men by their malice turn good into evil. For kings cannot legitimately rule without counselors, and administer public affairs; and this is how a tyrant is distinguished from a legitimate prince. A tyrant rules by his will and lust alone; a legitimate magistrate, on the contrary, rules by counsel and reason, in such a way that he is chiefly devoted to public welfare and interests. Thus the attendants and ministers of princes who legitimately administer the commonwealth are their eyes and hands — hands by which they carry out their edicts and decrees, and eyes by which they see what is beneficial and honorable — and thus the princes themselves are kept in their duty, so that they administer the commonwealth with equity and justice. Finally, Samuel predicts that they will be stripped of their goods and possessions by the king, who will lavish them on his servants. This is confirmed more and more by daily experience. And indeed it is certain that princes need attendants and administrators. For what would happen with a most powerful king ruling far and wide, if he did not have certain administrators to manage royal affairs? Yet what these courtly ministers are usually like, experience teaches. For once they begin to have influence and favor, they make no end of their plundering, but like ravenous beasts they covet the goods of private persons and are never satisfied. Hence it happens that one who was born of humble station and rank, who could barely support himself and his family for three days on his income, soon, not content with ample revenues of up to ten thousand pounds, strives to ennoble his house and family with greater ones. Hence frauds, hence robberies, hence a thousand tricks for plundering the goods of citizens, so that they are all the bolder the more they think they have greater influence and favor with the prince. And so you often see those whose annual income barely equaled ten thousand pounds soon possessing revenues above a hundred thousand pounds. But where were such great riches scraped together in so short a time, if not from the frauds and robberies by which the wretched common people are continually oppressed by these leeches? And yet you see them competing to rush toward evil and plunder. For those who preside over military affairs and hold the greater offices make the greatest profits and spoils. Others you see — treasurers and similar courtly ministers — scraping together such great wealth in a short time that they purchase estates and domains for themselves with money, and indeed with such pride and arrogance that they are intolerable to their own relatives and associates; while on the other hand, noblemen can barely sustain their families on their annual income without the greatest difficulties and fear of either disaster or some other misfortune, if they wish to increase their wealth. From all this it is apparent that the ministers of princes, by whom they ought to be assisted in managing public affairs, are rather bellows by which a greater fire is kindled. For when they ought most of all to bend princes toward humanity and moderation, they rather drive them toward severity and cruelty, and incite them to plunder and rob their wretched subjects. Why so? Namely, so that they themselves may get a share and gorge themselves on the resources of the wretched. Furthermore, what Samuel threatens — that the king will tithe their seeds, vineyards, and olive groves — could not have applied among the Israelites. For tithes had been assigned by the Lord to the tribe of Levi. But indeed it had been permitted among all nations and from all ages for kings to impose and collect taxes and revenues laid upon the peoples; and accordingly there is no longer room for the question of how kings can impose revenues on subjects and collect them. Nor does it appear in sacred history how they exacted taxes and revenues from the peoples. And so tithes by their nature can indeed belong properly to kings and princes, as a common and natural right that applied among all nations. But among the Israelites there was, as we said before, a special arrangement regarding tithes, because the Levites had received them as their portion and lot, since when God distributed the land of Canaan by lot to the individual tribes, he assigned them no other possession than the tithes that fell to them, along with certain pastures, so that they might feed themselves and their herds. When therefore kings here offer themselves as antagonists to God himself, as it were, and institute a new system of tithes, are they not overturners of all laws? And so from this we learn that God shows in part that men will never discharge their duty unless drawn to it by some force; and that when they have been raised to any more eminent ranks of office, they are like wild beasts that no force has tamed. In part also he reproves the people's rashness, by which they had brought such great harm upon themselves. For previously they had enjoyed a special privilege, since after paying their tithes, their income was free from all other subsidies; and the tithes were paid not to kings but to those whom God had chosen from among the remaining tribes to devote themselves to his worship, and who, having received no other portion with their brothers, lived from those tithes. What a privilege, I ask! For if there are several brothers in one family and they were required to pay one of them a certain sum of money from their annual revenues and income to sustain his livelihood, would they have just cause to complain about the inheritance? But God had given the Israelites this singular privilege to enjoy. But now the prophet threatens that in addition to the tithes established by God's laws, the king will also establish tyrannical tithes, to such a degree of arrogance and presumption that he will not hesitate to set himself up as God's rival. [unclear] And so he will also impose tithes and exact them from the Levites themselves, so that the Levites too will be compelled to pay tributes to the king from their own tithes, and the tyranny of kings will extend so far that nothing will remain to the Levites from which they might sustain themselves. that they make delights for themselves, and being carried away by their more violent passions, are ruled by wicked counsels. And indeed this is the custom of all people who depart from the truth, who at first sin lightly against the truth and do not at first adulterate the commandments of God; but at length, when they have overstepped the bounds of modesty, they are carried headlong into every falsehood, so that they are restrained by no barriers of either the fear of God or of moderation. Since these things are so, we must use timely remedies and safeguards, lest that contagion overwhelm us unawares. For indeed experience teaches that this people always rushed toward the worse, strayed more and more from the straight path, and provoked God's wrath against themselves more vehemently, from the time when they voluntarily rejected the counsel of God. Finally it is said that Samuel told the Israelites that each one should withdraw to his own city, the Lord so commanding, to whom he had reported all the words of the people. From this it appears that Samuel still retained some authority among the people. For we saw that Samuel, having prayed to God, understood God's will and that of the people in turn. Here therefore is contained a repetition of those things which were said above, but for greater confirmation, so that we may know that whatever happened came about by God's providence.

From this it is first evident how the people were all the more inexcusable, inasmuch as they refused to obey Samuel's admonition, who addressed the people not by human authority but by heavenly authority. And therefore Samuel is mentioned by name, because what he heard from the people he reported to the Lord, so that we may know that the change of government among the Israelites was brought about by divine providence, when they obtained the king they had demanded with such audacity and arrogance, indeed even sacrilege. Then it appears that Samuel still retained some authority among those stubborn and rebellious people, whom he kept obedient to his word, when he ordered each one to withdraw home to his own city, until they should receive the king they had demanded. For what else was their withdrawing home than a testimony of the reverence with which they honored him, and by which they committed themselves to his authority and integrity? This is why Paul writes in his first epistle to Timothy that those who faithfully perform their duty and who minister well acquire for themselves a good standing. And there indeed Paul speaks of ministers of the divine word, but nevertheless the same things can be said of all magistrates, and of all those who have been promoted to any degrees of dignity. Paul therefore teaches that those who have been called to public offices ought to conduct themselves in them with the utmost integrity and equity, and to look to one aim: the glory of God and the benefit of their neighbors. By these things greater authority is won than by many threats. Let Samuel's authority among this seditious people serve as an example. For, I ask, would those who were so turbulent have voluntarily withdrawn home, without first completing the matter they had demanded, unless Samuel's authority had carried great weight with them? For they would have objected that Samuel had now grown old, and since he had influence among the common people, he would look after his sons' interests and divert his counsels to their advantage; and therefore, with the people's favor, he would easily excuse his sons' faults, especially in their absence, and consequently their hope would be disappointed. And it is likely that they would have raised all these objections, so that it is a new and remarkable thing that they obeyed Samuel when he dismissed each one home, since they had previously dared to talk back, saying that it would by no means be as the Lord had said. Therefore it was new and remarkable that they voluntarily withdrew home and committed the whole matter to Samuel's faithfulness. From this it is evident with what great integrity and sincerity Samuel governed that people, so long as God granted him authority: so that even the most stubborn and virtually frenzied people nonetheless acquiesced in Samuel's words and committed the whole matter to his faithfulness, even though they might have feared that something might turn out otherwise; but they had recognized Samuel's faithfulness and integrity, so that they rightly showed themselves obedient to his command. From this let those who sit at the helm of commonwealths learn to administer public affairs with such equity and integrity that they may win such authority for themselves that their words may be believed, so that they may be able to quell the fire of sedition, whether by their presence or by their word, and cut off every occasion of sedition and rebellion. In turn, let subjects also learn from this that they will be less excusable if they reject the voices of those who study peace, and spurn the counsels of those who strive to cut off every occasion of quarrels and dissensions. For the Israelites, though seditious and virtually frenzied, nevertheless submitted to Samuel, whose faithfulness, uprightness, integrity, and other gifts they knew well enough. What then will become of us if we make no room for admonitions, if we despise approved and upright men, if finally we reject sound and right counsels? Therefore let us apply ourselves to this: that if perchance we have leaped beyond the bounds of reason, let us put on a better mind, lest we rush willingly to ruin and destruction. Let this people therefore serve as an example, which, although it conducted itself stubbornly against Samuel, yet when it withdrew home at his command, it is sufficiently apparent from this that they did not persist so far in stubbornness as not to acknowledge and honor Samuel as a faithful servant of God. He therefore had such authority among them that at his voice they withdrew home. Therefore let us learn to submit ourselves to God, and if we have once departed from the right way, to return to a better course, so that, having turned to God, we may obtain forgiveness of sins, and never fall away from obedience to him. And indeed we must take the greatest care lest we come to a heap of iniquity and be cast into a reprobate mind. Rather we must meet God's judgment and timely implore pardon, so that he himself may daily supply us with strength, by which we may walk with sure footing in his fear, until he finally receives us to himself.

It remains that, having become suppliants, etc.

11. He said: 'This will be the behavior of the king who will reign over you: He will take your sons and appoint them for himself — for his chariots and for his horsemen — and they will run before his chariots.', 12. 'He will appoint for himself commanders of thousands and commanders of fifties, and some to plow his ground, to reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war and the equipment for his chariots.' 13. 'He will also take your daughters to be perfumers, cooks, and bakers.' 14. 'He will take your fields, your vineyards, and your best olive groves, and give them to his servants.' 15. 'He will take a tenth of your grain and your vineyards and give it to his officers and his servants.' 16. 'He will take your male servants and your female servants and your best young men and your donkeys and use them for his work.' 17. 'He will take a tenth of your flocks, and you will be his servants.' 18. 'Then you will cry out in that day because of your king whom you have chosen for yourselves, but the Lord will not answer you in that day.' 19. But the people refused to listen to the voice of Samuel. They said: 'No, but there shall be a king over us.' 20. 'That we also may be like all the nations, and that our king may judge us and go out before us and fight our battles.' 21. Now when Samuel heard all the words of the people, he repeated them in the hearing of the Lord. 22. And the Lord said to Samuel: 'Listen to their voice and appoint them a king.' And Samuel said to the men of Israel: 'Go, every man to his city.'

What remains for us to explain is Samuel's speech to the Israelite people, in which he urges them — while there is still time — to turn back from their plan of seeking a king. He tells them that the king who reigns over them will take their sons, put them to his own use, and commit many acts of plundering and robbery. As we said in the previous sermon, by these words the Lord is not giving kings the power of tyranny over their subjects. But since when princes seize tyrannical power, subjects seem to lose the freedom to resist, it may rightly be asked: if kings and princes have sworn to their peoples to govern with the utmost fairness, sincerity, and integrity — and then break that word, usurp tyrannical power, and allow themselves everything — may the peoples not look to their own interests and apply a fitting remedy to this evil? This is certainly a difficult question, which it is neither convenient nor expedient to examine too closely at this time. We see many today looking for any opportunity to overturn the established order, granting themselves too much latitude in disturbing and changing governments and ruling powers. These matters must therefore be handled with great care. We must be content with what Scripture teaches: that God punishes through tyrannical princes those who have forfeited the right to legitimate governance. I grant that force may be resisted when robbers use violence against us, since no one may lawfully use force against another. If someone seizes our property against our will, we must still recognize God's hand and judgment in it. But the case of princes and higher authorities is entirely different — God wills subjects to obey them. I also grant that God has prescribed limits on their power within which they ought to contain themselves — that they should devote themselves to the common good, govern peoples with fairness and justice, not be puffed up by their rank, remember that they too are subject to God, and acknowledge that even at the highest pinnacle of dignity they are still fragile and mortal. Advancing God's glory is their duty. Samuel, however, is here warning the people that the rule of kings must be endured — that their necks must be patiently submitted to the yoke. From all this it is clear that subjects neither can nor ought to rebel against kings and princes or cause any disturbance — even if those rulers exercise tyranny, oppress subjects with plundering and robbery, and show no regard for God or for equity and justice. I do, however, grant that certain remedies against tyranny are permissible — for example, when other magistrates and institutional orders have been established to oversee the commonwealth, who are able to hold the prince to his duty and even restrain him if he exceeds it. But when those magistrates fail to act or do not dare to oppose his tyranny, then private persons too must recognize that this calamity is sent upon them by God as a punishment for their sins. Just as Scripture teaches us that a well-ordered commonwealth is a singular blessing from God, so conversely a disordered state — with wicked men ruling and perverting justice — is a sign of divine wrath, humbling us and calling us by this means to acknowledge our sins, so that we may turn to God with all our hearts and call upon Him. It is in this sense only that Samuel says the king's behavior will be to scrape together the wealth and possessions of his subjects. For a people who had previously been free, who had chosen to desire royal rule and voluntarily surrendered their liberty, deserved such a reward.

Let us now turn to the specific content of the authority Samuel predicts kings will exercise over the people. He says the king will take their sons to serve in his chariots and cavalry, to run before his chariot; to serve as commanders of thousands and of fifties; to plow his fields — for in those times kings paid much closer attention to their estates than they do today, since modern kings consider it beneath their dignity to maintain farms and engage in agriculture, whereas there was greater simplicity and integrity back then — to reap his harvest and to make his weapons of war. Their daughters he will take as perfumers, cooks, and bakers, and for other domestic work. Their servants, maidservants, and finest young men he will take as well, along with their donkeys, and put them all to his work. Finally, he will take a tenth of their flocks, fields, and vineyards and give these to his chief officials and servants. Now, since even in those days — which were less corrupt than the times we have fallen into — princes allowed themselves so much and did not refrain from such plundering and pillaging, let us recognize that wickedness, greed, cruelty, immorality, and tyranny have prevailed in the world from ancient times. Therefore, since today the world is flooded with a torrent of impiety and injustice, let us not be surprised to see so much plundering and pillaging everywhere among the nations — and kings and princes who consider everything permitted to them, since no one opposes them. For that old proverb common among tyrants holds: let my will stand in place of reason. Accordingly they consider themselves bound by no laws. Those who have spoken somewhat more honorably at least claimed they lived according to the laws. And indeed the claim of being subject to no laws is excessively arrogant — yet it was in practice accepted in the institutions of the Roman emperors. Since we see that in every age those who were restrained by neither the fear of God nor the love of justice considered everything permitted to themselves and gave free rein to evil, let us know that today there is all the more reason to humble ourselves before God, submit our necks to the yoke, and pray that He restrain the tyranny threatening us — which is more severe from today's princes than it ever was in former ages — unless He Himself in His mercy breaks the attempts of men. Moreover, let those who have been raised to the highest offices acknowledge that they must constantly meditate on God's Word and that they need the help of the Holy Spirit. This alone will enable them to rule peoples with greater restraint, render God His honor, obey His laws, and govern their subjects with moderation. Let them seek divine help for this purpose, so that under His guidance they may walk the right path, never stray from what is right, and keep themselves within their proper bounds.

We now come to the words in which the king is said to be going to take both the persons and the property of his subjects. Certainly, when kings do their duty, no one would deny that subjects owe them taxes — and that kings may rightly draw on both the persons and property of their subjects. Paul teaches that this is approved by God: that kings exact taxes and revenues from their subjects. When they do this for public purposes, they cannot be charged with usurped tyranny. God has given kings this power to use both the persons and the property of their subjects — but not rashly, not without examination of the circumstances, and only on the condition that it be done for public purposes and the benefit of the commonwealth. When we say it is the duty of subjects to be subject to kings and obey them, we also mean in turn that legitimate administration is required of the kings themselves: that they undertake nothing harshly or tyrannically, but govern their subjects according to God's command; that they not rashly go to war; that they not seek to expand their domain through personal ambition; and finally, that they not command their subjects on a whim or out of personal desire. When enemies attack a region or city, kings may draft soldiers, assemble an army, and lead them into battle — and subjects must be prepared to lay down their lives for their country and king. But kings must not rush to arms rashly or pursue a private cause. Their plans must serve the use and benefit of the commonwealth. Subjects are indeed under the power of kings — but in turn kings must devote themselves to the public good, discharging the duty God has prescribed for them, and doing so with counsel and mature deliberation. If kings manage the commonwealth according to their own judgment and pleasure and take counsel from themselves alone, subjects will inevitably be crushed under plundering and pillaging, with no hope of a better future — only greater fear of oppression. Whoever has attained royal power and wishes to govern his subjects and maintain genuine authority among them must not trust himself too much, but manage affairs with reason and counsel. He must take special care that in exacting revenues or taxes, or in calling on the persons and property of subjects, he does nothing tyrannical — even though subjects must obey him. Their submission is not unlimited license for princes to abuse them at pleasure. Each person should be able to enjoy quietly and peacefully the goods and possessions received from God — which are therefore not placed unconditionally and without examination in the power of kings. What confusion would be introduced into the world if the distinction between properties and possessions were not maintained? The private property of individuals is not at the discretion and pleasure of kings. Kings may exact taxes and revenues, and when necessity demands it, may also seek extraordinary assistance from their subjects' resources for the commonwealth — but by right, not by mere force. In short, just as peoples must be subject to kings, so in turn kings must obey and be subject to the laws. They must not persuade themselves that everything is permitted to them, but must know they have been appointed as rulers of peoples to depend on God's Word and direct all their plans to the benefit of their subjects. But how great is the corruption, how deep the decay, that has long since invaded this order! Rulers act as though everything is permitted to them, as though they are not bound by God's law, as though His worship has nothing to do with them. In this they are greatly deceived. Having cast off the fear of God, they exercise a proud and cruel dominion over their subjects and regard them as little more than livestock — while considering themselves, by virtue of their rule, to stand outside the order of common humanity, demanding not merely respect but something approaching divine honor. And yet it is certain that all royal rule is ministerial. I say it plainly: kings are servants and ministers of God. They must know they have been entrusted to peoples by God as His ambassadors, to faithfully administer His affairs and care for the people. Although the power of earthly princes is great, they must acknowledge that they are ministers and servants of God and of the peoples. But how few princes take these things seriously! How many give free rein to their own will and desires! David himself — so distinguished for piety, so excellent a prophet — did not always observe what God's law prescribed. He taught others God's law, but he himself, elated by prosperity, forgot it. He multiplied wives; he accumulated a vast quantity of gold and silver; he gathered many treasures — all of which the law forbade, a law to which he had otherwise shown, by unmistakable signs, his deep devotion. Since we see that the exercise of power is so great that it blinds even godly princes, we must think carefully about how great a blessing liberty is when God bestows it on anyone. The things Samuel recounts here are meant as punishment — because the people had rejected the inestimable blessing of liberty received from God and sought a king in place of the governor God had raised up, whose authority was familiar and beneficial. Not being able to bear so fair and honorable a condition, they would have to pay the penalty for their own rashness. For this reason Samuel sets before them various forms of misery and plundering to which those who desire royal rule would be subjected. The most powerful princes and monarchs commonly sin in this way. We can truly say they are like great rivers whose floodwaters devastate wide stretches of land and overwhelm them as if by a kind of deluge. Isaiah uses exactly this comparison when reproaching the Israelites for the alliance they sought with Egypt or Assyria, powers far greater than themselves: 'Because this people has rejected the waters of Shiloah that flow gently, and rejoices in Rezin and the son of Remaliah — therefore behold, the Lord is bringing upon them the waters of the River, strong and mighty.' There were no great swift rivers at Jerusalem — not like those in Egypt and Chaldea — and so the prophet uses the image of the gentle waters of Shiloah, whose rejection he rebukes, and threatens that in contrast the vast and mighty waters of those great rivers will pour through Judah, flood it and overflow, and reach up to the neck. The entire speech is figurative. He is not rebuking the people for desiring world domination, but for allying themselves with powerful kings — who he compares to great rivers — by which they would more likely be swept away than helped. So it usually goes for most peoples, as experience itself testifies. Where princes hold a more modest domain and exercise restraint in levying taxes, their subjects thrive in their own resources. But monarchs are like the swiftest rivers devastating lands far and wide. They insist their will must stand in place of reason, convinced long ago that everything is permitted to kings. They pay attention only to their own interests and manage the commonwealth by desire alone — not by counsel and reason. By this approach they depart from true humility and humanity, devising a thousand methods of causing harm, while no one dares to oppose them or even open his mouth. How few — scarcely one in many thousands — remember their humanity and humble themselves enough to genuinely prefer the welfare of their subjects over their own interests, and to foster their people in mutual peace and harmony in the fear of God! On the contrary, how eagerly they work not only to extend and further entrench their authority, but to harm and strip their subject peoples through various robberies and plunderings! They keep their eyes and ears closed to the calamities and miseries of wretched people, treating their cries and groans as of no account. The louder the complaints of the suffering grow, the more unrestrained and fierce they become. From all this we must learn how great a gift liberty is, and how generously God deals with peoples to whom He grants it — where the magistrates themselves are subject to laws, undertake nothing on their own, but manage affairs with reason and counsel, knowing they will eventually give an account of it. Great, therefore, I say — very great — is the blessing of liberty, which proceeds from God alone, the best and greatest. Nevertheless, those who are subject to the dominion of kings and monarchs — those whom God is testing through their tyranny — if they should attempt anything against their rulers or contemplate rebellion, they appear to have lost not merely sound judgment but their minds entirely.

The remaining evils of tyranny that Samuel mentions here are also worth noting: that the king will take their fields, vineyards, and olive groves and give them to his servants. These things show how men, by their own wickedness, turn good into evil. Kings cannot legitimately govern without counselors and administrators of public affairs — and this is what distinguishes a tyrant from a legitimate ruler. A tyrant rules by will and desire alone; a legitimate magistrate rules by counsel and reason, primarily devoted to public welfare and the common interest. The attendants and ministers of a prince who legitimately governs are his eyes and hands — hands by which he carries out his decisions and decrees, and eyes by which he sees what is beneficial and right. Through them the prince himself is kept in his duty, so that he governs the commonwealth with equity and justice. Finally, Samuel predicts that they will be stripped of their goods and possessions by the king, who will lavish them on his servants. This is confirmed more and more by daily experience. It is certainly true that princes need attendants and administrators. What would happen with a powerful king ruling a vast realm if he had no administrators to manage royal affairs? Yet what these court ministers are usually like, experience teaches all too well. Once they begin to have influence and favor, their plundering knows no end. Like ravenous beasts they covet the goods of private individuals and are never satisfied. Hence it happens that someone born of humble rank — who could barely support himself and his family for three days on his income — soon finds revenues of ten thousand pounds insufficient, and strives to raise his house and family to even greater heights. From this come frauds, robberies, and a thousand schemes for pillaging the goods of citizens — all the bolder for the greater influence they believe they have with the prince. You often see those whose annual income barely reached ten thousand pounds soon possessing revenues above a hundred thousand. But where was such great wealth assembled in so short a time, if not from the frauds and robberies by which the wretched common people are continually bled dry by these leeches? Yet you see them competing to rush toward plunder. Those who preside over military affairs and hold the greater offices take the greatest spoils. Others — treasurers and similar court officials — scrape together such great wealth so quickly that they buy up estates and domains, and do so with such pride and arrogance that they are unbearable even to their own family and associates. Meanwhile, noblemen can barely sustain their families on their annual income without great difficulty and constant fear of ruin, if they wish to grow their wealth at all. From all this it is plain that the ministers of princes — who ought to assist them in managing public affairs — are rather like bellows that fan the flames higher. When they should most of all be turning princes toward humanity and moderation, they drive them instead toward severity and cruelty, and stir them to plunder and rob their wretched subjects. Why? So that they themselves may get their share and gorge themselves on the resources of the wretched. Furthermore, the threat that the king will tithe their grain, vineyards, and olive groves could not literally have applied among the Israelites. For tithes had been assigned by the Lord to the tribe of Levi. But among all nations and in every age it has been permitted for kings to impose and collect taxes and revenues on their peoples — so there is no longer any question of whether kings have the right to impose such levies. Nor does sacred history record precisely how they exacted taxes from peoples. So tithes of this kind can, by their nature, properly belong to kings and princes as a common and natural right applicable among all nations. But among the Israelites there was, as we said before, a special arrangement regarding tithes. The Levites had received them as their assigned portion — since when God distributed the land of Canaan by lot to the individual tribes, He assigned the Levites no other possession than the tithes, along with certain pastures for feeding themselves and their herds. When kings therefore position themselves as rivals of God Himself and establish a new tithe system, are they not overturners of all law? From this we learn that God is showing in part that men will never fulfill their duty unless compelled by some force — and that when raised to any more prominent position, they are like wild animals that no force has tamed. In part also He is rebuking the people's rashness, by which they had brought such great harm upon themselves. Previously they had enjoyed a special privilege: after paying their tithes, their income was free from all other levies. And the tithes were paid not to kings but to those God had chosen from among the tribes to devote themselves to His worship — who, having received no other inheritance with their brothers, lived from those tithes. What a privilege! If several brothers in one family were required to pay one of them a set amount from their annual income to sustain his livelihood, would they have any just grounds for complaint about the inheritance? God had given the Israelites precisely this singular privilege. But now the prophet threatens that in addition to the tithes established by God's law, the king will also impose tyrannical tithes — with such arrogance and presumption that he will not hesitate to set himself up as God's rival. He will even impose tithes on the Levites themselves, so that they too are compelled to pay the king from their own tithes — and the tyranny of kings will extend so far that nothing will remain for the Levites to sustain themselves. And so rulers make pleasures for themselves, and being swept along by their stronger desires, are governed by wicked counsel. This is the pattern of all who depart from the truth: at first they sin only lightly against it and do not immediately corrupt God's commandments. But in time, once they have overstepped the boundaries of modesty, they plunge headlong into every kind of falsehood — restrained by neither the fear of God nor any sense of moderation. Since this is so, timely remedies and safeguards must be applied before that contagion overtakes us unawares. Experience teaches that this people always rushed toward the worse — straying further and further from the straight path and provoking God's wrath against themselves all the more fiercely — from the moment they willingly rejected God's counsel. Finally, it is said that Samuel told the Israelites that each should return to his own city — the Lord so commanding, after hearing from Samuel all the words of the people. This shows that Samuel still held some authority among the people. We saw that Samuel, having prayed to God, understood both God's will and the will of the people. This closing summary therefore contains a repetition of what was said above, for greater confirmation — so that we may know that whatever happened came about by God's providence.

First, this makes clear how much more inexcusable the people were, since they refused to obey Samuel's warning — a warning delivered not by human authority but by heavenly authority. Samuel is specifically named here because he reported to the Lord what he heard from the people — so that we may know the change of government among the Israelites came about by divine providence, when they received the king they had demanded with such audacity, arrogance, and indeed something approaching sacrilege. It also appears that Samuel still retained real authority among that stubborn and rebellious people — enough that when he ordered each person to go home to his own city, they complied, waiting to receive the king they had demanded. What was their returning home other than a testimony of the reverence they showed him, and of the trust they placed in his faithfulness and integrity? This is why Paul writes in his first letter to Timothy that those who faithfully perform their duty and minister well gain for themselves a good standing. Paul speaks there of ministers of God's Word, but the same can be said of all magistrates and all those promoted to any position of dignity. Paul teaches that those called to public office ought to conduct themselves with the utmost integrity and fairness, keeping a single aim in view: the glory of God and the benefit of their neighbors. By these things greater authority is won than by any number of threats. Let Samuel's authority among this contentious people serve as an example. Would those who had been so turbulent have willingly gone home without first completing what they had set out to demand — if Samuel's authority had not carried great weight with them? They could have objected that Samuel was now old and, since he had influence with the common people, would look after his sons' interests and steer his counsel for their benefit. They could have argued that he would easily excuse his sons' faults in their absence and disappoint their hopes. It is likely they could have raised all of these objections. It is therefore remarkable and new that they obeyed when Samuel sent them each home — since they had previously dared to push back and say it would by no means be as the Lord had said. That they willingly went home and committed the whole matter to Samuel's faithfulness was something genuinely remarkable. This shows how great Samuel's integrity and sincerity must have been in governing that people, as long as God granted him authority — that even the most stubborn and nearly frenzied of people nonetheless yielded to his word and committed the whole matter to his faithfulness, even when they might have feared the outcome. They had come to know Samuel's faithfulness and integrity well enough to show themselves obedient to his command. From this let those who sit at the helm of government learn to administer public affairs with such fairness and integrity that they win the kind of authority where their words are trusted — so that by their presence or their word they may be able to put out the fire of sedition and cut off every occasion for rebellion. In turn, let subjects also learn that they will be all the more inexcusable if they reject the voices of those who work for peace and despise the counsel of those who strive to cut off every cause of quarrel and division. For the Israelites — contentious and nearly frenzied as they were — still submitted to Samuel, whose faithfulness, uprightness, and integrity they knew well enough. What then will become of us if we make no room for admonition — if we despise men of proven character, if we reject sound and right counsel? Let us therefore apply ourselves to this: if we have at some point leaped beyond the bounds of reason, let us put on a better mind, lest we rush willingly toward ruin and destruction. Let this people serve as our example. Though they behaved stubbornly toward Samuel, the fact that they went home at his command shows well enough that they did not persist in stubbornness so far as to refuse to acknowledge and honor him as a faithful servant of God. He had such authority among them that at his voice they went home. Let us therefore learn to submit ourselves to God, and if we have once departed from the right way, to return to a better course — so that, having turned to God, we may obtain forgiveness of sins and never fall away from obedience to Him. We must take the greatest care not to pile iniquity upon iniquity and be given over to a reprobate mind. Rather, we must meet God's judgment in time and promptly implore pardon, so that He Himself may daily supply us with strength, by which we may walk steadily in His fear, until He finally receives us to Himself.

It remains that, having become suppliants, etc.