Chapter 1

1 Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an Apostle, set apart to preach the Gospel of God. 2 Which he had promised before by his Prophets in the holy Scriptures. 3 Concerning his son Jesus Christ our Lord, which was made of the seed of David according to the flesh. 4 And declared mightily to be the son of God, touching the spirit of sanctification by the resurrection from the dead. 5 By whom we have received grace, and Apostleship (that obedience might be given to the faith) in his name among the Gentiles. 6 Among whom you are also the called of Jesus Christ. 7 To all you that are at Rome, beloved of God, called to be Saints: grace be with you, and peace from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ.

Paul. I would speak nothing at all of the name of Paul: seeing it is a thing of no such weight, that we should stand long upon it: and nothing can be brought, which has not been spoken of other interpreters before: but that with small labor, I may satisfy some, without any great contempt of others, this question shall be dispatched in few words. Those which think the Apostle did take to him this name, as a testimony of his victory over Sergius that under consul, whom you converted to Christ, they are confuted by Luke himself, who shows that he was so called before that time: neither do I think it likely, that this name should be given to him, ever since he was converted to Christ. Which thing I suppose pleased Augustine, only that thereby he might take occasion of disputing wittingly, while he says that of a proud Saul, he was made a humble disciple of Christ. The opinion of Origen is more probable, who judges him to have had two names. For it is not unlikely, that this name Saul being a name of his ancestors, was given to him of his parents, to declare his religion and kindred: and the other name Paul, to have been added to testify the title of the city of Rome: both because they neither would have this honor obscured in him, which then was greatly esteemed: neither made they such reckoning of it, that it should extinguish the remembrance of the stock of Israel. That he uses the name of Paul more often in his Epistles, this may seem to be the cause, it was more famous, and more used in the Churches, to which he wrote, it was more gracious in the Roman Empire, though less known in his own kindred. For it behooved him to have great care to avoid that vain suspicion and hatred, in which the very name of a Jew was at that time with the Romans, and Provincials: and to beware he increased not the madness of his Countrymen, and to take heed to himself. A Servant of Jesus Christ, etc. He adorns himself with these titles, that he might get authority to his doctrine. And that he does two ways: first, while he affirms his calling to the Apostleship. Secondly, when he teaches that the same calling is not strange from the Church of Rome. For it was both very expedient that he should be an Apostle by the calling of God, and also known to be appointed to the Church of Rome. Therefore he says that he was a minister of Christ, and called to the office of an Apostle: whereby he signifies that he did not rashly intrude himself there. Straightway after he says, he was separated or set apart: that he might the better prove, he was no vulgar or common fellow, but an excellent Apostle of the Lord. In which signification he had also before descended from the general, to that which was more special: seeing that the Apostleship is a kind of ministry. For whoever occupies the function of teaching, is to be counted among the servants of Christ: but Apostles, by degree of honor are most excellent among all others. This selection or setting apart of which he speaks, declares both the end and use of the Apostleship. For his mind is briefly to show, to what end he was called to this function. Therefore whereas he says he was a servant of Christ, that is common to him with all other teachers. In challenging to himself the title of an Apostle, he prefers himself before others: but because he deserves no authority who intrudes himself, he admonishes that he was ordained of the Lord. The meaning is thus: that Paul is a servant of Christ, not a common servant, but an Apostle, and that not by intrusion, but by the calling of God. Then follows a more clear exposition of the duty of an Apostle, namely that he is ordained to the preaching of the Gospel. For I am not of their mind, which refers the calling, of which he speaks, to the eternal election of God: by separation or setting apart they understand either that whereby he was separated from his mother's womb, of which he speaks to the Galatians, or that whereby Luke says, he was appointed to the Gentiles. For simply he rejoices that he had God his author, lest any should think he had presumptuously usurped this honor. Here we are to note, that all men are not suited for the ministry of the word, in which there is required a special calling: indeed they which think themselves most fit, are to take heed, that without calling they thrust not themselves in. Moreover, of what sort the calling of Apostles and Bishops is, shall be declared in another place. We must observe also, that the office of an Apostle is to preach the Gospel. Whereby may appear how ridiculous those dumb dogs are, who when they are glorious only in a miter, a crooked staff, and such masking attire, yet they boast themselves to be the successors of the Apostles. The name servant signifies nothing else than a minister: for it is referred to the office. Which I note for this cause that the error of those may be taken away, who to no purpose dispute subtly of this word servant, while they think there is contained under it, a contrariety between the service of Moses and Christ.

Which he had promised before, &c. Because that doctrine which is suspected to be new — even through the suspicion of newness — has lost a great part of its authority: he establishes the faith of the Gospel, by the antiquity of it: as if he should say, Christ came not into the earth upon the sudden, neither brought he a new and strange kind of doctrine: for he himself together with his Gospel, has been promised and looked for, since the beginning of the world. Now because antiquity is many times feigned, he adds witnesses, and those also approved, that all suspicion might be taken away: namely the Prophets of God. Thirdly he adds that their testimonies are truly registered: namely, in the holy Scriptures. Out of this place we may gather what the Gospel is: which he teaches not to have been preached, but only promised by the Prophets. Therefore if the Prophets did promise the Gospel, it follows then, that the Lord being at the length manifested in the flesh, it was exhibited: they are therefore deceived that confound the promises with the Gospel: seeing the Gospel properly is a solemn preaching of Christ manifested, in whom the promises are exhibited.

Of his son &c. A notable place, wherein we are taught, that the whole Gospel is comprehended in Christ: so that whoever goes a foot from Christ, withdraws himself from the Gospel. For seeing he is the lively and express image of the Father, it is no marvel, though he only be set before us, to whom all our faith ought to bend itself, and in whom it ought to consist. This is therefore a certain description of the Gospel: whereby Paul shows briefly what is contained in it. I have turned the words following in the same case, Jesus Christ, &c. For this conjunction of the text, seemed to me, best to agree. Whereupon it is to be concluded, that he which has profited accordingly in the knowledge of Christ, has obtained, whatever may be learned out of the Gospel. As on the contrary, they which seek to be wise out of Christ, are not only foolish, but altogether mad. Who was made &c. Two things are to be sought for in Christ, that we may find salvation in him: his divinity, and his humanity. His divinity contains in itself, his power, righteousness, and life, which are communicated to us by his humanity. Therefore the Apostle put them both down precisely, in the sum of the Gospel, that Christ was exhibited in the flesh, and in the same declared himself to be the son of God: like as John, when he had said that the word was made flesh, he adds that his glory was seen in the flesh, as the glory of the only begotten son of God (John 1:14). And it is not without great consideration, that he fetches the kindred and pedigree of Christ, specially from David his great grandfather: for hereby he calls us to the promises: lest we should doubt, whether this were he, that was promised in old time. The promise made to David, was so famous, that it is evident, by use to have been taken up among the Jews, to call the Messiah the son of David. This thing therefore makes for the assurance of our faith, that Christ came of David. He adds. According to the flesh: That we might know he has somewhat above flesh, which he brought from heaven, and took it not of David: namely that, which he adds afterward of the glory of the deity. Moreover in these words. Paul does not only prove Christ to have taken the true nature of flesh, but also plainly distinguishes the human nature, from the divine in him: and so he refutes the wicked doting of Servetus, who feigned Christ to have flesh composed of three uncreated elements.

4 And declared to be the son of God &c. Or if you had rather, determined or appointed: as if he should say, the virtue of his resurrection, was in stead of a decree, whereby he was denounced to be the son of God: as it is said, this day have I begotten you (Psalm 2:7). For that same begetting is to be referred to knowledge. And albeit some men make here three different testimonies of Christ's divinity, by power understanding miracles, secondly, the testimony of the Spirit, lastly the resurrection of the dead: I had rather join them all together, and reduce all three to one, after this manner, Christ is the determined or appointed son of God, having openly declared a true celestial, and the very same power of the Spirit, when he rose from the dead: but this power is comprehended, when it is sealed by the same Spirit in our hearts. To which interpretation the phrase of the Apostle agrees very well: for he says he was declared in power, or mightily, because there appeared in him such power, as was proper to God, and proved him most certainly to be God. This power appeared in his resurrection: as in another place the same Paul, after he has acknowledged, that the infirmity of the flesh appeared in his death, commends the virtue of the Spirit in his resurrection (2 Corinthians 13:4). Yet this glory is not known to us, until the same Spirit seals it in our hearts. And that Paul together with that wonderful power of the Spirit, which Christ showed forth in rising from the dead, does also understand that testimony which every faithful man feels in his heart, may be seen by this, that he does express sanctification by name: as if he should say, the Spirit as it sanctifies, does establish and ratify that experiment of his power, which it once declared. For the Scripture uses often to adorn the Spirit of God with such titles as may serve for the present purpose. So it is called of the Lord the Spirit of truth, of that effect, of which he spoke in that place (John 14:17). Moreover, a celestial power is said to have appeared in the resurrection of Christ, because he rose again by his own strength, as he testified many times, saying, destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up again (John 2:9; John 10:18). No man takes my life from me. For he conquered death (to whom he gave place according to the infirmity of the flesh) not by external help gotten by entreaty, but by the heavenly operation of his own Spirit.

5 By whom we have received, etc. Having ended the description of the Gospel, (which, for the commendation of his office, he inserted) now he comes to speak of his calling, for it stood him greatly upon to make the same approved with the Romans. Whereas he names grace and Apostleship one from the other, it is a Hypallage, for free Apostleship, or grace of Apostleship: whereby he signifies, that it was wholly through the bountifulness of God, and not of his worthiness, that he was called to so high an office. For although in the sight of the world, it has nothing besides perils, labors, hatred, and infamy: yet with God and his Saints, it is of singular and great dignity. Or if you had rather say thus, I have received favor that I should be an Apostle, it is all one. Where it is said, In his name, etc. Ambrose expounds it, that in the stead of Christ, he was appointed to the Gospel: according to that saying, we are Ambassadors for Christ. Yet I think their opinion is more sound, which take name for knowledge, because the Gospel is preached to this end, that we might believe in the name of the Son of God. And Paul himself is called a chosen vessel to bear the name of Christ among the Gentiles. In his name therefore is as much as if he should say, that I might make known what Christ is.

Into the obedience of faith, etc. That is to say, we have received commandment to bear the Gospel to all nations, to which they may become obedient by faith. From the end of his calling, he advertises the Romans again of his office: as if he should say, it is my part to execute that, which is given me in charge, that is, to preach the word: and it is your part to obey the word with all obedience: unless you will make that calling frustrate, which the Lord has given to me. Whereby we may gather, that they do stubbornly withstand the power of God, and pervert his ordinance, who irreverently and disdainfully refuse the preaching of the Gospel, whose end is to bring us into the obedience of God. Here also the nature of faith is to be observed, which is therefore adorned with the title of obedience, because the Lord does call us by the Gospel: and we answer to his calling by faith. As on the contrary, infidelity is the cause of all disobedience against God. I choose rather to translate it, into the obedience of faith, than to obey faith: because this latter cannot be said, but improperly, and figuratively: although it is once read in the Acts. For properly it is faith, whereby we obey the Gospel.

Among all the Gentiles, among whom etc. It was not enough that he was appointed an Apostle, except his ministry should have respect to the making of disciples. Therefore he adds, that his apostleship did extend to all the Gentiles. Straight away after he calls himself more plainly the Apostle of the Romans, while he says the Romans were comprehended in the number of the Gentiles, to whom he was given to be a minister. Moreover, the Apostles have this commandment common to them, that they should preach the Gospel in all the world: neither were they appointed over certain churches, as Pastors and Bishops are. And Paul besides the general charge of his Apostolic function, by a special ordinance was appointed a minister to preach the Gospel among the Gentiles. Neither does that hinder any whit, that he was forbidden to go through Macedonia, and preach the word in Mysia, which was done, not that certain bounds should be limited to him: but that for the present time, he was to hasten elsewhere: for the harvest was not yet ripe there.

6 Called of Jesus Christ. He gives a reason which is somewhat nearer: namely because the Lord had already showed in them proof, whereby he declared that he called them to the fellowship of the Gospel. Therefore it followed, if they would have their calling to stand, they ought not to reject the ministry of Paul, who was chosen by the same election of the Lord. Therefore I understand this short sentence called of Jesus Christ, by the way of a declaration, as though this word namely, or to say, came between. For he signifies, that they are partakers of Christ by calling. For they which shall be the heirs of eternal life, are both chosen of the heavenly Father in Christ, and also being elected, are committed to his custody and guardianship as of a shepherd.

To all you which are at Rome. By an excellent order he shows what is praiseworthy in us. First, that the Lord of his bountifulness has received us into favor, and love. Secondly, that he has called us. Thirdly, that he has called us to holiness: which commendation then takes place, if we become answerable to our calling. Here arises to us a very fruitful doctrine, which I will comprise in few words, and leave to the consideration of every man. Assuredly Paul defines not the praise of our salvation, to be in ourselves, but derives it wholly from the fountain of God's free and fatherly love toward us. For he makes this the origin, that God loved us. And what other cause was there of his love than his mere goodness? Hereupon not only our calling depends, whereby in his time he seals his adoption in those, whom he had freely chosen before. But also we gather, that none can rightly associate or couple himself to the number of the faithful, but they must certainly believe that the Lord is merciful to them, although they are unworthy, and miserable sinners, and being stirred by his goodness, must give all their study to come to holiness. For he has not called us to uncleanness but to holiness. Seeing the Greek may be translated by the second person, I do not see the reason why the person should be changed. Grace and peace. Before all other things it is to be wished, that we may have God favorable toward us: which is signified by grace. Then secondly that prosperity and success of all things may proceed from him, which is understood by the word peace. For however all things seem to laugh upon us: if God be angry, even blessing itself is turned into a curse. Therefore the only foundation of our felicity is the favor of God: whereby we enjoy true and perfect prosperity, indeed even in adversities also our salvation is advanced. And whereas he prays for peace from the Lord, we understand, that whatever good thing comes to us, the same is a fruit of God's favor. Neither is this to be omitted, that he does also pray for these good things from the Lord Jesus. For worthily is this honor given to him, who is not only the minister and disposer of his father's bountifulness toward us, but also together with the father works all things. Yet the mind of the Apostle properly is to note, that all the benefits of God come to us through him. There are some which by the word peace, had rather understand the peace of conscience: which signification I deny not but sometimes it has: but seeing it is most certain that the mind of the Apostle in this place, was briefly to put down the sum of good things, that former interpretation which is approved of Bucer, is more convenient by a great deal. Therefore he, willing to wish the sum of felicity to the godly, goes to the fountain, as of late, namely the grace of God, which alone does not only bring to us eternal blessedness, but also is the cause of all good things in this life.

8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, because your faith is published throughout the whole world.

9 For God is my witness (whom I serve in my spirit in the Gospel of his son) that without ceasing I make mention of you.

10 Always in my prayers, beseeching that by some means one time or other, I might have a prosperous journey by the will of God to come to you.

11 For I long to see you, that I might bestow among you some spiritual gift to strengthen you.

12 That is, that I might be comforted together with you, through our mutual faith, both yours and mine.

8 First, etc. Here begins the entrance, which is very aptly applied to the cause, for by reasons taken as well from his own person, as from theirs, he does conveniently prepare them to docility or easiness to be taught. The reason from their person is, that he reports the famousness of their faith. For thereby he insinuates, that they being laden with the public praise of churches, could not refuse an Apostle of the Lord, but they should deceive that opinion which all men had conceived of them: which is counted barbarous, and in a manner nigh to infidelity. As this report therefore ought to induce the Apostle, that having conceived well of their obedience, he should take upon him according to his office, to teach and instruct the Romans: so it bound the Romans again, that they should not despise his authority. From his own person he stirs them to docility, with a testification of his sincere love. For there is nothing more effectual to procure credit to him that counsels, than if he has gotten this opinion, that he is thought even from his heart, to study and provide for our wealth. First this is worthy to be noted, that he so praises their faith, that yet he ascribes it to God, as received from him. Whereby we are taught, that faith is the gift of God. For if thanksgiving be an acknowledging of a benefit: then he does acknowledge faith to be of God, who so does give him thanks for it. And inasmuch as we see the Apostle begins his congratulations with thanksgiving: we may know that we are admonished that all our good things are the gifts of God. And also it is expedient that we acquaint ourselves with such kind of speeches, as thereby we may the rather at all times be moved to acknowledge God to be the giver of all good things: and provoke others also to the same mind. And if it be fitting to observe this in the least blessings, much more in faith: which is an excellent and singular grace of God. Furthermore, here we have an example, how we are to give thanks by Christ, according to the commandment of the Apostle to the Hebrews: even as we ask and obtain mercy at the hands of the Father in his name. Finally, he calls him his God. This is a special prerogative of the faithful, to whom only God gives this honor. For therein is contained a mutual respect, which is expressed in the promise: I will be their God, and they shall be my people. Although I had rather restrain it to the person which Paul did bear: that it might be an approbation of the obedience which he performed to the Lord in the preaching of the Gospel. So Hezekiah calls God, the God of Isaiah, when he would give testimony to him that he was a true and faithful prophet. So also by a kind of excellence he is called the God of Daniel: because Daniel had maintained his pure worship throughout the whole world. The commendation of good men was to Paul in esteeming the faith of the Romans, like to the whole world. For infidels, to whom their faith was rather an abomination, could neither give sincere, nor probable testimony of it. Therefore we understand, that the faith of the Romans was published in the whole world by the mouths of all the faithful, who could both judge and speak rightly of it. That this small and base company of men, was not known to the wicked, no not to those who were at Rome, that is no matter: seeing Paul passed by their judgment, as a thing of nothing.

9 For God is my witness. He shows his charity by the effects. For unless he had loved them greatly, he would not so carefully have solicited their health with the Lord, and specially he would not have so earnestly desired to advance the same by his own labor. Therefore that carefulness, and that desire are sure tokens of his love: for except they sprang from that, they could never be. And because he knew it was expedient for establishing credit to his preaching, that the Romans should be well persuaded of his sincerity: he adds an oath, a necessary remedy as often as that talk which ought to be firm and out of all doubt, is called into question. For if an oath be nothing else than a calling of God to witness, for the confirmation of our talk, they are very foolish which deny the Apostle to have sworn in this place, and yet notwithstanding he transgressed not the commandment of Christ. Whereby it appears that the meaning of Christ was not (as the superstitious Anabaptists dream) altogether to put down oaths, but rather to call us to the true observation of the law. And the law permits an oath, forbidding only perjury, and superfluous swearing. Therefore if we will, accordingly as we should, swear, let us follow the sobriety and reverent discretion which appeared in the Apostles. And to the end you may understand this rule, know that God is so called to be a witness, that he is also called to be a revenger if we do deceive. Which thing Paul expresses in another place in these words, Now I call God for a record to my soul.

Whom I worship in spirit. Because wicked men who delude God use no less boldly than rashly to pretend his name, Paul here commends his holiness, that he might have the more credit. For whoever does fear and reverence God will abhor to swear falsely. Moreover, he opposes his spirit against outward hypocrisy. And because many do falsely boast themselves to be the worshippers of God, and in outward show appear to be so, he testifies that he does worship God from his heart. It may be also he had respect to the old ceremonies, in which only the Jews thought the worship of God did consist. Therefore he lets it be understood that although he retained not that exercise, yet nevertheless he was a true worshipper of God: as he says to the Philippians, We are the true circumcision, which serve God in the spirit, and glory not in the flesh. Therefore he rejoices that he worshipped God in sincere piety of mind, which is true religion, and the lawful worship of God. It was expedient (as I said before) to the end his oath might have the more certainty, that Paul should testify his devotion toward God. For perjury, which the godly abhor more than a thousand deaths, is but a sport with the wicked. For it cannot be, but where there is a serious fear of God, there should also be such reverence of his name. It is therefore as much as if Paul should say, I know how great reverence and religious devotion there ought to be of an oath, I therefore do not call God to witness as the wicked use to do. And so by his example he teaches us, that so often as we swear, we should give such testimony of holiness, that the name of God which we use in our talk might have its weight. Secondly, he proves by the sign that he worshipped not God hypocritically, namely by his ministry. For that was a notable token that he was a man given to the glory of God, who having denied himself, refused not for the advancing of the kingdom of God to sustain whatever dangers, whether of reproach, poverty, death, or hatred. Some understand this clause, as though he did therefore commend that worship, wherewith he said he worshipped God, because it was according to the prescribed rule of the Gospel. Sure it is that the spiritual worship of God is commanded in the Gospel. But yet the former interpretation is much more consonant: namely, that he devoted his obedience to God in the preaching of the gospel. Yet in the meantime he distinguishes himself from hypocrites, who have another purpose than to serve God: as ambition or some such like does cause most of them, and it is far to seek that all should behave themselves sincerely and faithfully in that office. The sum is, that Paul was occupied sincerely in the office of teaching: because he applied that, which by way of circumstance he had spoken of his piety, to the present cause. But hence we gather a profitable doctrine, which ought greatly to encourage the ministers of the gospel, when they hear that they do a thankful and precious service to God in preaching the gospel. For what is it that should hinder them, when they know their labor so to please God, and to be approved with him, that it is counted an excellent service of God? Moreover he calls it the gospel of the Son of God, because Christ is manifested in it, being ordained of the Father to this, that while he is glorified, he should again glorify the Father.

That without ceasing. Yet he expresses a greater heat of love by his continual praying. For it was much, always to make mention of them, when he made his prayers to God. And that we may have the sense more plain, I take this word, [illegible], in place of a noun: as though it were said, in all my prayers, or as often as I come to God in prayers, I make mention of you. And he speaks not of every invocation of God, but of those prayers, wherein while the saints will bestow themselves, all cares being set apart, they give their whole study to them. For oftentimes he might upon the sudden burst forth into this or that wish, and yet the Romans not in his remembrance: but as often as he did purposely, and as it were with meditation pray to God, among others he was also mindful of them. Therefore he speaks of particular prayers, wherein the saints do purposely dispose themselves: as we see the Lord himself in such prayers to have sought for a solitary place. And withal he gives to understand how often, or rather how continually he was occupied in them, while he says he prayed without ceasing.

Beseeching, that by some means. Because it is not likely that from our heart we seek his profit, whom we are not ready to further with our help: after he has declared his carefulness in procuring their salvation, now he adds another argument whereby he testified before God his love toward them: namely, in beseeching that he might help them. Therefore, that you may have the full sense, read these words as though the word indeed were interposed: indeed, beseeching (that by some means). And when he says, a prosperous journey by the will of the Lord, he declares that he does not only look for the prosperity of life from the favor of the Lord, but even thereupon to esteem his journey prosperous, if it be approved of the Lord, according to which rule all our desires ought to be ordered.

For I desire to see you, etc. He might after a sort being absent, have confirmed their faith with his doctrine: but because counsel is always better taken of one present, therefore he coveted rather to be with them face to face. And he shows the end of his counsel, to signify to them, that he would not take upon him so wearisome a journey for his own, but for their profit. By spiritual gifts, he understands either the gifts of doctrine, or exhortation, or prophecy: which he knew he had received of the grace of God. Here he has notably set forth the lawful use of those gifts, under the word, communicating or bestowing. For to that end are various gifts given peculiarly to every one, that all might graciously one help another, and one make another partaker of those things, which are given to every one: of this afterward. To strengthen you. He qualifies that which he said of communication, lest he should seem to count them such, as were yet to be instructed in the first elements, as though they were not yet rightly entered in Christ. Therefore he says that he covets to help them in that respect, wherein, they may yet be helped, which have profited greatly. For all of us have need to be confirmed, till Christ be made perfect in us. And not being content to have spoken so modestly, he adds over and besides, a castigation or correction, wherein he shows that he did not so take upon him the office of teaching, but that also he coveted to learn again of them. As if he should say, I desire so to confirm you according to the measure of grace given to me, that my faith also, by your example may be encouraged: and so we may profit one another among ourselves. Behold into how great moderation this godly man submits himself, that he refuses not to seek for confirmation of those were but raw scholars.

Neither speaks he dissemblingly. For there is none in the Church of Christ so void of gifts, that he cannot profit us somewhat: but our malignity and pride hinder us, that we do not receive any such commodity. We are so high minded, and drunken with foolish glory, that despising others, and setting them at nothing, every man thinks himself to be sufficient enough for himself. I had rather read it with Bucer by the way of exhortation, than of consolation: because so it agrees better with the premises.

13 Now my brothers I would not that you should be ignorant, how that I have often times purposed to come to you, (but have been prevented until now) that I might have some fruit also among you, as I have among the other Gentiles.

14 I am debtor both to the Greeks, and Barbarians, both to the wise men, and to the unwise.

15 Therefore as much as in me is, I am ready to preach the Gospel to you also that are at Rome.

Whereas until now he had testified that he did continually desire of God that he might at some time see them, because that might seem to be but a vain thing, unless he would take occasion offered, now he assured them in that point: for he says there was no want of will but of opportunity: because he was often interrupted of his purpose.

Where we learn, that the Lord many times overthrows the counsels of his Saints, that he might humble them, and by such humbling, teach them to have respect to his providence, that they might depend upon it, although the Saints, who deliberate nothing without the will of God, are not properly driven from their counsels. For that is wicked boldness without regard of God to determine upon things to come, as who should say, they were in our power: which boldness, James reproves sharply. Whereas he says he was hindered, you may not otherwise take it, than that the Lord did lay before him more urgent business of the Church, which he could not leave without great damage to the Church. Thus that impediments of the godly and faithless differ: that these think themselves then at length to be hindered, when by the violent hand of the Lord they are so hemmed in, that they cannot stir themselves: the others are content to take some lawful reason for an impediment: neither do they permit themselves to attempt anything, either besides their office or contrary to edification. That I might have some fruit. Undoubtedly he speaks of that fruit, to the gathering of which the Apostles were sent of the Lord: I have chosen you, that you might go, and bring forth fruit, and your fruit might remain. Which fruit although he gathered it not for himself, but for the Lord, yet he calls it his: because there is nothing more proper to the godly, than that which advances the glory of the Lord, to which all their felicity is coupled. And he says he had received fruit among other nations, to the end the Romans might be in hope, his coming to them should not be unprofitable, which so many nations had proved to be fruitful.

14 Greeks and Barbarians. Whom he understands by Greeks and Barbarians he shows by an exposition: when he names the same in other titles wise men and unwise: for which Erasmus turns it, learned and unlearned: but I had rather keep the words of Paul. He reasons therefore from his office, that he is not to be counted arrogant because he thought himself partly able to teach the Romans, however they excelled in learning, prudence, and knowledge of things. For it pleased the Lord to send him also to the wise.

Two things are here to be considered. First that the Gospel is appointed and offered by the commandment of God to the wise, to the end that the Lord might subject to him all the wisdom of this world, and might cause all wittiness, all kind of science, and highness of arts give place to the simplicity of this doctrine: and so much the more, because they are brought into an order with idiots, and are so tamed, that they can now abide those to be their school fellows under the Schoolmaster Christ, whom before they would not have suffered to have been their scholars. Secondly, the unlearned neither are to be driven from this school, neither are they through vain fear of themselves to flee away from it. For if Paul were indebted to them, and is to be thought to have been a faithful debtor, undoubtedly he performed that which he ought. Therefore here they shall find, whereof they may be capable to enjoy it. Here also all teachers have a rule which they may follow, namely, that modestly, and courteously they humble themselves to the unlearned and idiots. Upon this it shall come to pass, that they may bear more patiently many trifles, and devour almost innumerable contempts, whereof otherwise they might be overcome. Yet withal let them remember, that they are so bound to the foolish: that they are not by over much coddling to maintain their foolishness.

15 Therefore as much as in me is. Now he concludes that which he spoke before of his desire. Namely, that in as much as he saw it was his office to sow the Gospel among them, that he might reap fruit to the Lord: he coveted to answer the calling of God, so far forth as the Lord would permit.

16 For I am not ashamed of the Gospel of Christ: for it is the power of God to salvation to every one that believes, to the Jew first, and also to the Greek.

17 For by it the righteousness of God is revealed, from faith to faith: as it is written, the just shall live by faith.

16 I am not ashamed. This is a preoccupation, or preventing of the adversaries' objections, wherein he foreshows that he cared not for the scoffings of the wicked, wherein also by the way he makes to himself a passage to the setting forth of the dignity of the Gospel, lest it should be contemptible to the Romans. While he says he is not ashamed, thereby he gives to understand that it is contemptible in the sight of the world. And so he prepares them now to the bearing of the reproach of the cross of Christ, lest they should esteem less of the Gospel, while they see it subject to the scoffings and reproaches of the wicked: but on the contrary he shows in how great price it is with the godly. First, if the power of God ought to be in high estimation with us, that shines in the Gospel. If the goodness of God be worthy to be sought for and loved of us, the Gospel is an instrument of that goodness: worthy therefore is it to be reverenced, and honored, if the power of God be to be reverenced: and as it is an instrument of our salvation, it is to be loved of us. And observe how much Paul attributes to the ministry of the word, when he testifies, that therein God shows forth his power to salvation: for he speaks not here of any secret revelation, but of the vocal preaching of the Gospel.

Upon which it follows, that they do as it were purposely refuse the power of God: and repel far from them his hand of deliverance, which withdraw themselves from the hearing of the word. But because it works not effectually in all, but only where the Spirit the inward teacher lightens their hearts: therefore he adds, to every one that believes. Indeed the Gospel is offered to all men to salvation: but the power thereof appears not every where. And whereas it is the savor of death to the wicked, that comes not so much of the nature of the Gospel, as of their malignity and wickedness. By declaring one salvation, he cuts off all other confidence: from which only and sole salvation, while the wicked withdraw themselves, they have a certain manifestation of their destruction in the Gospel. Therefore seeing the Gospel does indifferently call all men to salvation, it is properly called the doctrine of salvation. For Christ is offered in it, whose proper office is to save that was lost. And those which refuse to be saved by him, shall find him a judge. Yet every where in the Scriptures this word salvation is simply opposed against destruction. Therefore when it is named we are to regard what thing is spoken of. Seeing therefore the Gospel does deliver from the destruction and curse of eternal death, the salvation thereof is life eternal. To the Jew first and also to the Greek. Under the name of Greeks now he contains all the Gentiles, as may appear by his division wherein he has comprehended all men under two members. And it is likely that he chose this nation of Greeks chiefly, to set out other nations by them, because it was first, after the Jews, admitted into the communion or fellowship of the covenant of the Gospel: secondly, because both for nearness, and famousness of tongue the Greeks were best known to the Jews. It is therefore the figure Synecdoche wherein generally he joins the Gentiles to the Jews in the participation of the Gospel: yet notwithstanding he puts not the Jews down from their degree and order, in as much as they were the first in the promise and calling. Therefore he reserves for them their prerogative: but immediately he adjoins the Gentiles, albeit in a lower degree, partakers with them.

17 For the righteousness of God. This is an exposition and confirmation of the former sentence, namely, that the Gospel is the power of God to salvation. For if we seek for salvation — that is to say, life with God — first we must seek for righteousness, whereby we being reconciled to God, through his mercy may obtain life, which consists only in his benevolence. For seeing God hates unrighteousness, we must needs be righteous before we can be loved of him. Therefore he signifies that we cannot obtain salvation elsewhere than in the Gospel: because God does not elsewhere manifest to us his righteousness, which only delivers us from destruction. And this righteousness which is the groundwork of our salvation is revealed in the Gospel: whereupon the Gospel is called the power of God to salvation: so he reasons from the cause to the effect. Moreover, note how rare and precious a treasure the Lord does bestow upon us in the Gospel, namely, the communication of his righteousness. By the righteousness of God I understand that righteousness which is approved before the tribunal seat of God: as on the contrary he is wont to call that the righteousness of men, which in the opinion of men is reckoned and counted for righteousness, although indeed it be but a smoke. And yet I doubt not but Paul alludes to many prophecies, where the spirit of God often celebrates the righteousness of God in the kingdom of Christ to come. Others expound it for righteousness which is given to us of God. And surely I confess the words will bear this sense: because God does justify us by the Gospel: therefore he saves. Yet that former interpretation seems to me to be more agreeing: although I do not greatly stand upon that matter. That is more weighty, where some think this righteousness does not only consist in the free remission of sins: but partly also in the grace of regeneration. But I do understand it, that we are therefore restored into life, because God has freely reconciled us to himself: as we shall show more at large afterward in his place. And whereas he said before to every one that believes, now he says from faith: for righteousness is offered by the Gospel, and is received by faith. And he adds to faith: for look how much our faith increases in us, and how much we have profited in this knowledge, by so much the righteousness of God together with them is augmented in us, and after a sort the possession thereof is established. As soon as we do taste of the Gospel, we see the countenance of God, but a far off, favorable and pleasant toward us: the more that the knowledge of piety grows in us, as it were by coming nearer, we behold the grace of God more clearly and more familiarly. Whereas many think there is under these words a secret comparing of the old with the new Testament, that is more subtle than firm. For Paul does not here compare the fathers which lived under the Law with us, but notes the daily progress and proceeding in every faithful man. As it is written. By the authority of the Prophet Habakkuk he proves this righteousness of faith. For he, when he prophesies the destruction of the proud, adds also, that the life of the just consists in faith. And we live not in the sight of God but by righteousness: therefore it follows that our righteousness also does depend upon faith. And the verb future notes the continual perpetuity of that life whereof he speaks: as if he had said, it is not momentary, but shall endure for ever. For the wicked also are proud through a false opinion of life: but while they say peace and all is well, suddenly destruction comes upon them. It is therefore but a shadow which continues but a moment: and it is faith only which brings eternal life. From where is that, but because faith does bring us to God, and settles our life in him? For unless this were the meaning of the Prophet, that then, and not before, we stand, when by faith we lean upon God, Paul had not aptly applied this testimony. And undoubtedly he has not otherwise ascribed the life of the godly to faith, but so far as, the pride of the world being condemned, they gather themselves under the safeguard of one God. He does not now upon set purpose handle this cause: and therefore he makes no mention of free righteousness: but even by the nature of faith it is sufficiently apparent, that this testimony is fittingly applied to the present cause.

Furthermore, by this disputation we do necessarily gather the mutual relation between faith and the Gospel. For because it is said the just shall live by faith, he infers that this life is received by the Gospel. Now we have the state, or principal point of this first part of the Epistle, namely, that by the only mercy of God we are justified. As yet we have not this particularly expressed in the words of Paul: but by the text it will easily appear afterward, that our righteousness which is grounded upon faith, does wholly depend upon the mercy of God.

18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and unrighteousness of men, which withhold the truth in unrighteousness, or unjustly.

19 For as much as that, which may be known of God, is manifest in them: for God has showed it to them.

20 For the invisible things of him, that is, his eternal power and Godhead, are seen by the creation of the world, being considered in his works, to the intent that they should be without excuse.

21 Because that when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful, but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was full of darkness.

22 When they professed themselves to be wise they became fools.

23 For they turned the glory of the incorruptible God to the similitude of the image of a corruptible man, and of birds, and four-footed beasts, and of creeping things.

18 The wrath of God is revealed. Now he argues from the comparing of contraries, whereby he proves that righteousness does not happen, neither comes otherwise than by the Gospel: for out of this he shows all men are condemned. Therefore in it only is salvation to be found. And he brings for the first argument of condemnation: that when the frame of the world, and this comely composition of elements, ought to have been a spur to man, that he should glorify God: no man was found to do his duty. Whereby it appears how all men are guilty of sacrilege, and wicked, and abominable ingratitude. Some men think this to be the first proposition or general sentence: that Paul might begin his sermon at repentance: but my mind is, that the disputation begins here: and that the state of the cause was set down in the former proposition. For the purpose of Paul is to show where salvation is to be sought for. And he has already pronounced that we do not otherwise obtain it than by the Gospel. But because flesh does not willingly humble itself thus far, that it might assign the praise of salvation to the only grace of God, Paul proves the whole world to be guilty of eternal death. Whereupon it ensues that we must seek for life elsewhere, seeing we are all lost and utterly cast away in ourselves. However, the words being diligently weighed will help greatly to the understanding of the tenor of the proposition. Some put a difference between impiety and unrighteousness after this sort: by the first word they understand the violating of the worship of God, by the second the violating of that equity that should be among men. But because the Apostle immediately after refers that unrighteousness to the neglect of religion, we will understand both as one and the same.

Secondly, all impiety of men: by the figure Hypallage, for the impiety of all men: or, whereof all men are guilty. One thing, to wit, unthankfulness against God, is set forth by two names, because we offend therein two ways. It is called Asebeia, that is, impiety or ungodliness, as a dishonoring of God. It is called Adigeia, that is, unrighteousness, or injustice, because man in taking to himself what is God's, has unjustly robbed God of his honor. Wrath, a human affection, after the manner of the Scripture, is put for the vengeance of God: because God when he punishes seems (in our opinion) to be angry. Therefore it does not signify any motion in God: but only has respect to the sense of the sinner that is punished. When he says that the same is revealed from heaven, although this particle "from heaven" is taken by some in the place of an epithet as though it were said, of the celestial God: yet I think there is more efficacy in it, after this sense: wherever a man looks about him, he shall find no health, for so far and wide as the heavens are, the wrath of God is poured out into the whole world. The truth of God signifies the true knowledge of God. To withhold it is to suppress or obscure it: whereby they are as it were accused of theft. Where we translate it "unjustly," Paul has "in unrighteousness": which phrase of the Hebrews is all one: but we study to be plain.

19 For as much as that which may be known of God. Thus he terms that which is lawful or expedient for us to know of God. And he understands all that which appertains to the setting forth of the glory of the Lord: or (which is all one) whatever might move or stir us to glorify God. By which word he signifies that God cannot be conceived of us, how great he is: but there is a certain measure, within which men ought to keep themselves: even as God applies to our capacity whatever he testifies of himself. Those dote therefore, whoever they be, who contend to know what God is: because it is not in vain that the Spirit, the Teacher of true wisdom, does call us to "To gnoston," to say, which may be known of God. And how it may be known he will show straightway in that which follows. For the greater emphasis, he says rather, "in them," than simply, "them." For although the Apostle does everywhere use the phrases of the Hebrew tongue, wherein Beth is often superfluous, yet here it is thought he would show such a manifestation of God, whereby they might be urged more nearly than that they could make any evasion: as undoubtedly every one of us does feel it graven in his heart. Whereas he says, God has showed it, the meaning is, that man was therefore made, that he might be a beholder of the frame of the world, and that therefore were eyes given to him, that by the beholding of so goodly a spectacle, he might be carried to the author himself.

20 For the invisible things of him. God by himself is invisible: but because his majesty shines in all his works and creatures, men ought in them to acknowledge him: for they do plainly show forth their workmaster. In which respect the Apostle to the Hebrews calls the world a glass or spectacle of invisible things. He does not reckon particularly what things may be considered in God: but he teaches that we may by that glass come even to the knowledge of his eternal power and Godhead. For it behooves him who is the author of all things to be without beginning, and of himself. When we have come there, now the Godhead shows itself: which cannot consist but with every virtue of God, seeing they are all comprehended under it.

To the intent that they should be without excuse. Hereby it does easily appear, what men get by this demonstration: namely that they can allege no excuse before the judgment of God, but they are justly condemned. Let this distinction therefore stand: the demonstration of God, whereby he makes his glory apparent in his creatures, in respect of the brightness thereof is clear enough: but in respect of our [reconstructed: capacity] is not so sufficient. Yet we are not so blind, that we can pretend ignorance, to acquit us from the blame of wickedness or perversity. First we conceive with ourselves there is a God: Secondly, that the same whoever he be, is to be worshipped. But here our reason fails, before it can obtain either who is God, or what he is. Therefore the Apostle to the Hebrews ascribes this light to faith, that a man should profit truly in the creation of the world. And not without cause: for through blindness we are so hindered that we cannot come to the mark, we see so far that we cannot pretend any excuse. Paul declares both these things notably when he says, that God in times past suffered the Gentiles in ignorance: Nevertheless he left not himself without witness, because he gave to them rain, and fruitfulness from heaven. Therefore this knowledge of God, which avails only to take away excuse, differs greatly from that knowledge which brings salvation, whereof Christ speaks and wherein Jeremiah teaches we are to rejoice.

20 Because that when they knew God. Here he testifies plainly, that God has put into the minds of all men the knowledge of himself: that is to say, he has so manifested himself by his works, that needs they must behold that, which of their own accord they seek not after, namely that there is some God. For neither the world was existent by chance, neither did it come forth of itself. But we must always note in what degree of knowledge they remained, as now it follows, they glorified him not as God. God cannot be conceived without his eternity, power, wisdom, goodness, truth, righteousness and mercy. His eternity appears in this, that he is the Author of all things. His power, that he holds all things in his hand, and makes that they consist in him. His wisdom, by the most apt disposing of all things. His goodness, because there was no other cause why he should make all things, neither can he be moved by any other reason to preserve them, than for his only goodness. His justice, in the ruling or governing of all things, because he punishes the guilty, and delivers the innocent. His mercy that with so great patience he suffers the perversity of men. His truth, in this that he is immutable: Therefore he who has conceived the knowledge of God, now owes to him the glory of eternity, wisdom, goodness and righteousness. While men do not acknowledge such virtues in God, but dream of him as upon a vain fantasy: they are worthily said to rob him wickedly of his honor. And it is not without cause he adds, they were not thankful. For there is no man that is not indebted to him for his infinite benefits. Indeed and if it were in nothing else, even herein has he sufficiently made us his debtors, that he has vouchsafed to reveal himself to us. But they became vain, etc. That is to say, having left the truth of God, were turned to the vanity of their own sense, all the quickness or sharpness whereof is but vain, and passes away like a smoke. And so their foolish mind, could understand nothing aright: but by all means was carried headlong into errors and lies. This is that unrighteousness, which by and by chokes through its depravity the seed of true knowledge, before it comes to perfection.

22 When they professed. Out of this place commonly they take an argument, to think that Paul has here to do with Philosophers, who specially challenged to themselves the praise of wisdom. And they think this to be the course of Paul's disputation, that the excellence of the great Doctors being beaten down, it might consequently follow, that there was nothing praise worthy in the common sort of people.

But they seem to me to have over slender a reason to move them. For this thing was not peculiar to the Philosophers, that they should think themselves wise in the knowledge of God: but it was a thing common to the Gentiles, of whatever degree or order they were. For there was none, which would not bring the majesty of God under his capacity: and make God such a one as he could conceive in his own sense. This temerity is not learned (I say) in schools, but being ingrafted in us, does come together with us (that I may say so) even forth of our mother's womb.

For it is evident that this mischief has reigned in all ages, that men should take to themselves all liberty in coining superstitions. This arrogance therefore is reprehended: that when men ought in their humility to have given the glory to God, they would be wise in themselves, and pull God down to their humility. For Paul holds this principle fast, that it is his own fault, if any man be estranged from the worship of God. As if he should say, because they have proudly lifted up themselves, therefore through the just vengeance of God they have been infatuated or made foolish. Concerning that interpretation which I refuse, my reason is at hand that makes against it: because this error of feigning an image to God, had not its original from the Philosophers, but they having received it of others with their sentence did approve it.

23 And they turned. After they had feigned God to be such a one as they could apprehend by their carnal sense, it was far from them to acknowledge the true God: but they made a feigned and new God, or rather an image in the stead of God. That is it he says, They turned the glory of the Lord: because like as if a man should suborn, or put a strange child in the place of the natural, so they departed from the true God. Neither does this pretense excuse them, that yet notwithstanding they believed God dwelled in heaven: and that they counted not the wood for God, but for an image: For even this same is contumelious against God, that they imagined so grossly of his majesty, that they dared make to him an image. And from the guiltiness of such presumption no man can be exempted: no not the priests nor lawgivers: nor philosophers, of whom he that was most sober, even Plato himself seeks also for a fashion in God. This madness therefore is noted, that all would figure God to themselves, which thing undoubtedly declares their gross and foolish imaginations of God. And first they defiled the majesty of God with the similitude of corruptible man. For so I had rather turn it, than with Erasmus, of mortal man: Because Paul does not only oppose the immortality of God, against the mortality of man: but also that glory of his, subject to no corruptions, against the miserable condition of man. Secondly, not being content with this so great wickedness, they descended even to beasts and to those also in their kind were most vile. By which their sottishness is to be seen more clearly. Of these abominations you have with Lactantius, Eusebius, and Augustinus in his book de Civitate Dei.

24 Therefore also God gave them up to their hearts' lusts, to uncleanness, to defile their own bodies between themselves.

25 Which turned the truth of God to a lie, and worshipped and served the creature, above the creator, which is blessed forever, Amen.

26 For this cause God gave them up to vile affections: for even their women did change the natural use into that which is against nature.

27 And likewise also the men left the natural use of the women, and burned in their lust one toward another, and man with man worked filthiness, and received in themselves such recompense of their error as was fitting.

28 For as they regarded not to know God, even so God delivered them up to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient,

29 Being full of unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness, full of envy, of murder, of debate, of deceit, taking all things in evil part, whisperers.

30 Backbiters, haters of God, doers of wrong, proud boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, without understanding, covenant breakers, without natural affection, such as can never be appeased, merciless.

31 Which men though they knew the law of God, how that they which commit such things, are worthy of death, yet not only do the same, but also favor them that do them.

24 Therefore also God gave them. Because impiety is a privy or secret mischief: lest yet they should find some starting hole, by a more sensible demonstration, he shows that they can no way escape but they are justly condemned, for because such fruits followed that impiety, as thereby might be gathered evident tokens of the wrath of the Lord. And if so be that the wrath of God be always just, then it follows that there went somewhat before which made them damnable. From the tokens or signs of God's indignation he now urges the apostasy and revolting or slipping away of men: for God verily so revenges these that alienate themselves from his goodness, that he casts them headlong into manifold perdition and confusion. And comparing the likeliness of the vices with which they were pestered, with that impiety of which he accused them before, he proves that they were by the just judgment of God so plagued. For seeing nothing is more dear to us than our own honor, this is extreme blindness, when we doubt not to be reproachful to ourselves. Therefore it is a most convenient punishment for the blasphemy committed against the majesty of God. He pursues this one thing to the end of the chapter, but yet he handles it diversely, because the matter stood in need of great amplification.

This therefore is the sum of that he goes about, namely, that hereby it does appear, the ingratitude of men toward God is inexcusable: because by sure testimonies they show forth the fierce wrath of God against them. For they should never have been plunged in so filthy lusts after the manner of beasts, unless the majesty of God had been marvelously displeased and provoked against them. Therefore, seeing they everywhere abounded in most detestable abominations, he gathers that the testimonies of God's wrath were extant in them. Now if this wrath of God never rages against any recklessly or unjustly, but always it holds fast the moderation of equity: hereby he shows it is a plain case that no less just than sure destruction hangs over all men. Of the manner how God does give men over to wickedness, it is not necessary I should make any large discourse in this place. For it is certain he does permit men to fall, not only by suffering and winking at them: but also by his just judgment he so ordains it that they should be led and carried both of their own concupiscence and the Devil into such madness. Therefore he uses the word delivered, according to the perpetual manner of the Scripture: which word they stretch too violently who think we are carried to sin only by the sufferance of God. For as Satan is the minister of God's wrath and as it were his tormentor, so he is armed against us not by the dissembling or sufferance, but by the commandment of the Judge. And yet is neither God cruel, nor we innocent, seeing Paul declares plainly, that we are not otherwise delivered under his power, than if we have deserved such punishment. This only we except, that the cause of sin comes not from God: seeing the roots thereof remain still in the sinner. For this must always be true: Destruction is yours, O Israel, your help is only in me. When he joins the lusts of man's heart with uncleanness, privately he gives us to understand what fruit our heart brings forth when it is once left to itself. This clause between themselves, has its emphasis or force, for it expresses more significantly how deep and incurable notes of infamy they had printed in their bodies.

25 Which turned. To the end he might plant it better in their hearts, he repeats the same reason which he handled above, although not in the same words. While the truth of God is turned into a lie, his glory is stained. They therefore deserve justly to be imbued in all kind of ignominy, which both go about to rob God of his honor, and also to slander or blaspheme him.

And they worshipped. That I might apply two verbs to one construction I have thus translated it. He properly notes the sin of idolatry: for honor cannot be given for religion's sake to the creature, but it shall be unworthily and by the way of sacrilege taken from God. In vain is the excuse, that images are worshipped for God's sake: seeing God acknowledges not this worship, neither does he account it acceptable to him. And then the true God is not worshipped at all, but a feigned God which flesh has devised to itself. And that which is added, who is blessed forever, Amen. I interpret to be spoken to the greater reproach of the idolaters, after this sense, whom only they ought to have honored, and worshipped, and from whom they ought to have derogated nothing, though it were but a little.

26 For this cause God gave them up. As though he had interposed a parenthesis, he returns to that which he had begun before, concerning the vengeance of the Lord: and he brings the first example, in the horrible sin of preposterous lust: whereby it appears they were not only given over to beastly lusts: but also became worse than beasts, when they overthrew the whole order of nature. Secondly, he reckons a great catalogue of vices, which have both been extant in all ages, and at that time reigned everywhere most licentiously. Neither does this hinder one whit that every one was not laden with such a heap of vices: for in reproving the general corruption of men, it is sufficient if every one be compelled to acknowledge some mole or blemish.

Thus therefore it is to be taken that Paul does here briefly touch those vices, which both were common in all ages, and also were specially to be seen in that age. For it is marvelous how common that filthiness was, which the brute beasts abhor: as for the other vices they were vulgar. Secondly, that he recites such a catalogue of vices as all mankind is comprehended in it. For although all men be not murderers, or thieves, or adulterers: yet there is no man that is not found to be polluted with some vice. To vile affections. He calls those vile affections which even in the opinion of men are most vile or shameful: and serve to the dishonor of God.

27 And received in themselves such recompense of their error. For they which of their own malignity closed their eyes against the offered light of God, that they might not see his glory, deserved to be blinded, that they might forget themselves, and not see what were convenient for them. Moreover they deserved to have their sight dimmed at noonday, who were not ashamed (as much as in them was) to extinguish the glory of God, which only does lighten us.

28 As they regarded not to know God. In these words we are to observe a resemblance or comparison, which notably shows the equal relation of the sin, and the punishment. Because they regarded not to abide in the knowledge of God, which only directs our minds to true wisdom, the Lord gave to them a perverse mind, which now can allow of nothing. Whereas he says they approved not, it is as much as if he should say, they followed not the knowledge of God with such study as they ought, but rather purposely they turned their cogitation from God: he signifies therefore that through their wicked election they preferred their own vanities before God: and so that error by which they were deceived, was voluntary. To do those things which are not convenient. Because hitherto he has mentioned only that one execrable example, which though it were common amongst many, yet it was not common to all, he begins to reckon such vices as no man could be found to be free of. For albeit (as it is said) they appear not all at once in every one, yet all men know themselves to be guilty of some of them, that every man for his own part might be reproved of manifest depravity. First of all, whereas he calls them not convenient, understand that they abhorred from all judgment of reason, and were far from the duties of men. For he declares the tokens of a confounded mind, that without all difference men addicted themselves to those vices, which common sense ought to have refused.

Moreover, they labor in vain which go about to reduce these vices into an order, that one might be drawn out of another: seeing that was not the purpose of Paul, but to set them down as every one came first to his remembrance. What every of them signifies, let us briefly run over them. Understand injustice, when the right of humanity is violated among men, in not giving to every one that which is his. Ponerian according to the sentence of Ammonius I have turned lewdness or ungraciousness. For he teaches Poneron, that is, a lewd, naughty, or ungracious fellow to be Drasticon Cacou, that is, a doer or worker of mischief. Lewdness therefore or ungraciousness is a practiced or exercised kind of wickedness, or a more loose license of committing naughtiness. As for maliciousness, it is that depravity and crookedness of the mind which strives to do harm to our neighbors. Where Paul has the word Porneian, I have put this word lust, yet I am not against it if any man had rather translate it fornication: for it signifies as well the inward lust, as the external action. The words covetousness, envy, and murder, have no doubtful signification. Under strife or contention, he comprehends as well brawlings as fightings, and seditious motions. Cacoetheia, for which we have put down, perversity, to say, famous and notable lewdness: when a man by custom and an evil use, is hardened in corrupt manners. Theostugeis, are, no doubt haters of God. For there is no reason why it should be here put passively, that is, hated by God, seeing Paul in this place goes about by evident vices to prove the guiltiness of men. Those therefore are noted which hate God, whose righteousness they seem to withstand with their wickedness.

Whisperers, and backbiters are thus distinguished: that those namely, Whisperers, do by private accusations break the friendship of good men, inflame their minds to hatred, defame the innocent, and sow discord, etc. These, to say, backbiters, through a certain ingrained malignity spare the name of no man: and as though they were vexed with the frenzy of evil speaking, they slander together both those have deserved and those have not. I have translated Hubristas, evildoers, because the Latin authors are wont to call notable injuries, as are robberies, thefts, burnings, witchcrafts, which Paul would note in this place, by the name of evil deeds. I call those contumelious whom Paul calls Huperephanous, for so the Greek word signifies. Hence comes the name, because such being as it were set on high, contemptuously despise the lower sort, neither can they abide any equality. Those are proud or haughty, which do swell with the vain wind of superiority. Those are called insociable or such as will not be kept in the duty of civil obedience and fellowship, which through iniquities revolt from the conserving of man's society, or in whom there is no sincerity or constancy of faith, as though you should say truce-breakers. Without natural affection, who have put off even the first affections of nature toward theirs. Because he puts the defect of mercy among the tokens of man's corrupted nature: Hereupon Augustine gathers against the Stoics, that mercy is a Christian virtue. Who when they knew the righteousness of God. And albeit this place is diversely handled, yet this does seem to me the truest interpretation: that men have left nothing might serve to the unbridled licentiousness of sinning, because all difference of good and evil being taken away, they approved both in themselves and others, those things they knew displeased God, and by just judgment, were condemned of him.

For this is the head of all mischief, when as the sinner is so past all shame, that he both flatters his own sins (neither will he have it disliked in him) and also by his consent and cockering does nourish them in others. So is desperate wickedness described in the Scripture, they glory in it when they have done evil. Item, she has spread her feet abroad and gloried in her wickedness. For he which is yet ashamed is curable. But when through the custom of sinning such impudence is contracted, that vices please, and are counted in stead of virtues, there is no hope of amendment. And therefore I expound it thus, for that I see the Apostle in this place goes about to reprove something was more grievous and abominable, than the committing of the vices. What that should be I know not, unless we refer it to that sum of wickedness, when miserable men having cast off the shame of sin, take upon them to defend their unrighteousness against the justice of God.